Jammu and Kashmir: A Princely State Caught Between India and Pakistan

 Jammu and Kashmir—a princely state that both India and Pakistan had their eyes on. A region that was geographically connected to both nations. A state that joined the Indian Union with conditions. A Union Territory that remains a subject of dispute to this day. On one hand, it was rich in natural resources; on the other, it was strategically crucial due to its shared border with China. So important that both Pandit Nehru and Sardar Patel had been closely monitoring it long before independence.

At the time of independence, while the issue of accession was tangled in Junagadh and Hyderabad, India's major concern was Kashmir. It was a princely state where the ruler was Hindu, but the majority of the population was Muslim. The ruler couldn’t go to Pakistan, and he was reluctant to join India. He was deeply attached to his throne, but remaining independent was not an option.

Whenever we hear about Article 370, our minds instantly recall the story of Kashmir. Whenever we discuss Kashmir's accession, we seek to understand the efforts that led to its merger with India. Today, we will delve into the complete story of how Kashmir became a part of India, why Pakistan failed to annex it despite numerous attempts, and the challenges India faced in integrating princely states.

The Challenge of Unifying Princely States

When India gained independence, it was struggling with numerous challenges. The trauma of partition had shaken the nation. Communal riots were spreading across the country, while the resettlement of refugees from Pakistan posed another massive challenge. Amidst all this chaos, the task of integrating the princely states seemed like an uphill battle.

It wasn't just after independence that Sardar Patel and Pandit Nehru began worrying about the princely states. Even before independence, they were making efforts to unify them. Under British rule, princely states were semi-independent entities where rulers governed under British suzerainty. However, with the Indian Independence Act of 1947, the British Crown withdrew its supremacy over the princely states. Now, these states had to decide whether to join India or Pakistan based on geographical proximity.

For India and Pakistan, absorbing these princely states was a tough challenge, especially for those states that shared borders with both countries. This was why Sardar Patel wrote a letter to Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir as early as July 3, 1947, expressing concern about Kashmir’s situation and urging him to join the Indian Union. Around the same time, Patel also wrote to Nehru, saying:

"You know that on August 15, India will be divided, and we will become completely independent. Almost all princely states have decided to join the Indian Constituent Assembly. I understand that Kashmir has unique problems, but considering its history and tradition, it has no option but to join India."

At the time of independence on August 15, 1947, there were 560 princely states in India. By the time India became independent, all but three princely states—Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Kashmir—had agreed to merge with India.

Under the Indian Independence Act, princely states were given the choice to join either India or Pakistan. British Viceroy Lord Mountbatten had made it clear to all rulers that remaining independent was not an option, and they had to consider geographical realities while deciding their future.

However, three rulers refused to make a choice—Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Kashmir.

Junagadh and Hyderabad: How India Integrated Them

The Nawab of Junagadh was a Muslim, but the majority of the population was Hindu. When he faced pressure to merge with India, he decided to accede to Pakistan on August 15, 1947. However, the people of Junagadh protested against this decision and demanded to join India. The situation worsened, leading India to take military action. In November 1947, the Indian Army entered Junagadh, and a plebiscite was conducted, where the majority voted to merge with India.

The case of Hyderabad was even more complicated. Hyderabad was one of the largest princely states in India. The Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan, wanted to remain independent and even sought British and Pakistani support. He refused to join India and instead started arming his private militia, the Razakars, to suppress pro-India movements. The situation escalated, and under Operation Polo in September 1948, India launched a military intervention. Within five days, the Indian Army took control of Hyderabad, and the state was integrated into India.

However, the story of Jammu and Kashmir was more complex than Junagadh and Hyderabad. Unlike these two states, Kashmir was geographically and strategically crucial for both India and Pakistan. The situation took a dramatic turn when Pakistan launched an invasion to forcefully annex Kashmir.

The Pakistan-backed Invasion of Kashmir

At the time of independence, Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir was reluctant to join either India or Pakistan. He wanted to maintain the independence of his kingdom. However, Pakistan was eager to annex Kashmir, as it had a Muslim-majority population.

When the Maharaja delayed his decision, Pakistan launched an attack on October 22, 1947. The invasion was carried out by Pashtun tribal militias, who were backed and armed by the Pakistani military. These militias entered Kashmir through the northwest and began capturing key areas. Their goal was to reach Srinagar and force the Maharaja to surrender.

The tribal invaders unleashed terror in Kashmir, looting villages, killing civilians, and committing atrocities. They reached Baramulla, just 50 kilometers from Srinagar, where they massacred locals and looted property. Instead of advancing quickly to capture Srinagar, they got distracted by the looting, which gave the Indian government a crucial window to act.

Seeing the dire situation, Maharaja Hari Singh fled from Srinagar to Jammu and urgently appealed to India for military assistance.

Jammu and Kashmir Joins India

When Maharaja Hari Singh sought India’s help, the Indian government made it clear that military support could only be provided if Kashmir officially acceded to India. Left with no choice, Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession on October 26, 1947. This document granted India control over defense, foreign affairs, and communications, while Kashmir retained autonomy in other matters.

As soon as the Instrument of Accession was signed, India launched a military operation to push back the Pakistani invaders. On October 27, 1947, the Indian Army landed in Srinagar and began a counteroffensive. Fierce battles took place in various parts of Kashmir, and by the end of 1948, Indian forces had regained control of most of the valley.

However, before India could reclaim the entire territory, Pakistan secured parts of Kashmir, including Gilgit-Baltistan and what is now called Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).

The United Nations Intervention and Ceasefire

As the war continued, India took the Kashmir issue to the United Nations (UN) in January 1948, seeking international mediation. The UN proposed a ceasefire, which was accepted by both India and Pakistan. On January 1, 1949, a ceasefire was declared, with both countries agreeing to maintain control over their respective occupied territories until a final resolution was reached.

However, the promised plebiscite (referendum) to determine Kashmir’s fate never took place, as Pakistan refused to withdraw its forces from the occupied region, which was a precondition for the vote.

The Aftermath: Article 370 and Ongoing Disputes

To honor the special status of Kashmir, India granted it Article 370 in the Constitution, which gave Jammu and Kashmir autonomy in several areas, except defense, foreign affairs, and communications. However, this special status created tensions and led to political instability over the years.

Pakistan, on the other hand, continued to claim Kashmir and fought three more wars with India over the region (1965, 1971, and 1999 Kargil War).

In August 2019, the Indian government revoked Article 370, making Jammu and Kashmir a Union Territory, fully integrating it with India. This move was opposed by Pakistan and led to international debates, but it was seen in India as a historic step toward strengthening national unity.

Conclusion

The story of Jammu and Kashmir’s accession is a tale of political complexity, military battles, and strategic maneuvers. From the Pakistan-backed invasion in 1947 to the revocation of Article 370 in 2019, the region has remained at the heart of India-Pakistan tensions.

While Junagadh and Hyderabad were swiftly integrated into India, Kashmir’s story remains unfinished, as Pakistan continues to occupy parts of the region. The issue remains one of the most sensitive geopolitical conflicts in South Asia, shaping Indo-Pakistani relations even today.

What started as a princely state’s dilemma in 1947 became one of the longest-standing disputes in modern history.